Explore the Different Types of Galaxies

Explore the Different Types of Galaxies Thanks to instruments such as the Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers know more about the variety of objects in the universe than previous generations could even dream of understanding.  Even so, most people dont realize just how diverse the universe is. Thats especially true about galaxies. For a long time, astronomers sorted them by their shapes but didnt really have a good idea about why those shapes existed. Now, with modern telescopes and instruments, astronomers have been able to understand why galaxies are the way they are. In fact,  classifying galaxies by their appearance, combined with data about their stars and motions, give astronomers insight into galactic origins and evolution. Galaxy stories stretch back almost to the beginning of the universe.   This Hubble Space Telescope view reveals thousands of galaxies stretching back into time across billions of light-years of space. The image covers a portion of a large galaxy census called the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey (GOODS). NASA, ESA, the GOODS Team, and M. Giavialisco (University of Massachusetts, Amherst) Spiral Galaxies Spiral galaxies are the most famous of all galaxy types. Typically, they have a flat disk shape and spiral arms winding out away from the core.  They also contain a central bulge, within which a supermassive black hole resides. Some spiral galaxies also have a bar that runs through the center, which is a transfer conduit for gas, dust, and stars. These barred spiral galaxies actually account for most of the spiral galaxies in our universe and astronomers now know that the Milky Way is, itself, a barred spiral type.  Spiral type galaxies are dominated by dark matter, making up nearly 80 percent of their matter by mass. An artists concept of what our galaxy looks like from outside. Note the bar across the center and the two main arms, plus smaller ones. NASA/JPL-Caltech/ESO/R. Hurt Elliptical Galaxies Less than one in seven galaxies in our universe are elliptical galaxies. As the name suggests, these galaxies are either range from having a spherical to egg-like shape.  In some regards they look similar to large star clusters, however, the presence of large amounts of dark matter help distinguish them from their smaller counterparts. A giant elliptical galaxy has a small neighbor with a HUGE black hole at its heart. NASA/ESA/STScI These galaxies contain only small amounts of gas and dust, suggesting that their period of star formation has come to an end, after billions of years of rapid star-birth activity.   This actually gives a clue to their formation as they are believed to arise out of the collision of two or more spiral galaxies. When galaxies collide, the action spurs great bursts of star birth as the commingled gases of the participants are compressed and shocked. This leads to star formation on a grand scale.   Irregular Galaxies Perhaps a quarter of galaxies are irregular galaxies. As one might guess, they seem to lack a distinct shape, unlike spiral or elliptical galaxies. Sometimes astronomers have referred to them as peculiar galaxies, due to their odd shapes. No matter what theyre called, astronomers want to understand why they often look like oddballs when compared to other galaxy types. One possibility is that these galaxies were distorted by a nearby or passing massive galaxy. We see evidence for this in some of the nearby dwarf galaxies that are being stretched by the gravity of our Milky Way  as they are cannibalized by our galaxy. The Large Magellanic Cloud (middle left) and Small Magellanic Cloud (upper center) over Paranal Observatory in Chile. European Southern Observatory In some cases though, it seems that irregular galaxies have been created by mergers of galaxies. Evidence for this lies in the rich fields of hot young stars that were likely created during the interactions. Lenticular Galaxies The lenticular galaxies are, to some extent, misfits. They contain properties of both spiral and elliptical galaxies. For this reason, the story of how they formed is still a work in progress, and many astronomers are actively researching their origins.   Galaxy NGC 5010 a lenticular galaxy which has features of both spirals and ellipticals. NASA/ESA/STScI Special Types of Galaxies There are also some galaxies that contain special properties that help astronomers classify them even further within their more general classifications.   Dwarf Galaxies: These are essentially smaller versions of those galaxies listed above. Dwarf galaxies are difficult to define because there is no well-accepted cut-off for what makes a galaxy regular or dwarf. Some have a flattened shape and are often referred to as dwarf spheroidals. The Milky Way is currently cannibalizing a number of these smaller stellar collections. Astronomers can track the motions of their stars as they swirl into our galaxy, and study their chemical makeup (also known as metallicity).Starburst Galaxies: Some galaxies are in a period of very active star formation. These starburst galaxies are actually normal galaxies that have in some way been disturbed to ignite very rapid star formation. As mentioned above, galaxy collisions and interactions are the likely cause of the starburst knots seen in these objects.Active Galaxies: It is believed that virtually all normal galaxies contain a supermassive black hole at their cores. In some cases, however, this central engine can become active and drive massive amounts of energy away from the galaxy in the form of powerful jets. These Active Galactic Nuclei (or AGN for short) are widely studied, but it is still unclear what causes the black hole to suddenly become active. In some cases, passing clouds of gas and dust may fall into the gravitational well of the black hole. The material gets superheated as it swirls around in the black holes disk, and a jet may form. The activity also gives off x-rays and radio emissions, which can be detected with telescopes here on Earth. The study of galaxy types continues, with astronomers looking back to the earliest epochs of time using Hubble and other telescopes. So far, theyve seen some of the very first galaxies and their stars. These little shreds of light are the beginnings of the galaxies we see today. The data from those observations will help the understanding of galactic formation back at a time when the universe was very, very young.   This simple diagram of galaxy types is often called Hubbles tuning fork. public domain Fast Facts Galaxies exist in a variety of shapes and sizes (called their morphology).Spiral galaxies are very common, as are ellipticals and irregulars. The first galaxies were likely irregulars.Galaxies grow and evolve through collisions and mergers. Sources â€Å"Galaxy | COSMOS.†Ã‚  Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing, astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/g/galaxy.HubbleSite - The Telescope - Hubble Essentials - About Edwin Hubble, hubblesite.org/reference_desk/faq/all.php.catgalaxies.NASA, NASA, science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-are-galaxies.    Edited by Carolyn Collins Petersen.

Names and Functions of Chemical Elements in Fireworks

Names and Functions of Chemical Elements in Fireworks Fireworks are a traditional part of many celebrations, including Independence Day. There is a lot of physics and chemistry involved in making fireworks. Their colors come from the different temperatures of hot, glowing metals and from the light emitted by burning chemical compounds. Chemical reactions propel them and burst them into special shapes. Heres an element-by-element look at what is involved in your average firework. Components in Fireworks Aluminum: Aluminum is used to produce silver and white flames and sparks. It is a common component of sparklers. Antimony: Antimony is used to create firework glitter effects. Barium: Barium is used to create green colors in fireworks, and it can also help stabilize other volatile elements. Calcium: Calcium is used to deepen firework colors. Calcium salts produce orange fireworks. Carbon: Carbon is one of the main components of black powder, which is used as a propellant in fireworks. Carbon provides the fuel for a firework. Common forms include carbon black, sugar, or starch. Chlorine: Chlorine is an important component of many oxidizers in fireworks. Several of the metal salts that produce colors contain chlorine. Copper: Copper compounds produce blue colors in fireworks. Iron: Iron is used to produce sparks. The heat of the metal determines the color of the sparks. Lithium: Lithium is a metal that is used to impart a red color to fireworks. Lithium carbonate, in particular, is a common colorant. Magnesium: Magnesium burns a very bright white, so it is used to add white sparks or improve the overall brilliance of a firework. Oxygen: Fireworks include oxidizers, which are substances that produce oxygen in order for burning to occur. The oxidizers are usually nitrates, chlorates, or perchlorates. Sometimes the same substance is used to provide oxygen and color. Phosphorus: Phosphorus burns spontaneously in air and is also responsible for some glow-in-the-dark effects. It may be a component of a fireworks fuel. Potassium: Potassium helps to oxidize firework mixtures. Potassium nitrate, potassium chlorate, and potassium perchlorate are all important oxidizers. Sodium: Sodium imparts a gold or yellow color to fireworks, however, the color may be so bright that it masks less intense colors. Sulfur: Sulfur is a component of black powder. It is found in a fireworks propellant/fuel. Strontium: Strontium salts impart a red color to fireworks. Strontium compounds are also important for stabilizing fireworks mixtures. Titanium: Titanium metal can be burned as powder or flakes to produce silver sparks. Zinc: Zinc is used to create smoke effects for fireworks and other pyrotechnic devices.

Agency's law and ethics of hiring a diverse workforce Essay

Agency's law and ethics of hiring a diverse workforce - Essay Example This paper analyses the various laws that regulate personnel management at UCSIS. It also analyzes a case law that was solved out of a dispute in relation to the rights of an employee. The case law under consideration is applicable to the management of personnel at UCSIS. According to this law, it is illegal for any individual to hire or recruit unauthorized immigrants, and it requires employers to verify the immigration status of its employees. This law directly affects the personnel management of USCIS because it establishes the guideline in which any agency within United States of America can employ people. On this basis, USCIS cannot employ anybody whose immigration status is not valid as according to the laws of America. If USCIS violates this law, dangers are that it will be fined approximately $ 10,000 of fine (Doak, 2012) . Another law that will affect the operations of personnel management of the agency is the worker adjustment, and retention notifying act. According to this law, employers with more than 100 employees must provide a sixty day notice in case they plan to conduct a mass lay off, or there is an intention of closing a plant. On this basis, this law directly affects USCIS because it has an employee base of more than 100 employees. Offices of USCIS are stationed in almost all the states of the country, and some selected embassies around the world. On this basis, in case the organization intends to lay off its employees it must notify them at least for a period of sixty days.A case law that defines how workers and employees should relate is the 1994 case law on Waters vs. Churchill. This was a case that concerned itself with the first amendment on the rights of public employees within a work place. According to this case, the Supreme Court held that if an employee of a organization engages in a manner that will threaten and disrupt the activities of an organization, then the given organization has a right to dismiss the named employee. In thi s case, a nurse was dismissed for uttering contents that the hospital under consideration believed would affect its operations (Tischauser, 2012). The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the hospital, denoting that if Churchill had uttered words that would affect the operations of the hospital, then the hospital had a right to dismiss Churchill. On this basis, the Supreme Court referred the cases back to the lower courts so that they may interpret what Churchill exactly said. Personnel Recruitment and Hiring Practice: The organization has enacted programs whose main aim is to facilitate the recruitment of a diverse workforce, as well as a high caliber of employees. This is a strategic priority within USCIS because of the benefits that comes with employing a diverse work force. These benefits include ability to attract various experiences and skills from different people, of different cultures. For example, there are some experiences that black people have passed through, that might be b eneficial to the organization. While interacting with customers of their origin, blacks might know of what their needs are. The same happens to Caucasians, or even employees who are Hispanics (UCSIS, 2007). The organization also aims at reinforcing and supporting the achievements of its various employees through career development and training. When the organization recruits, it has a policy to train its employees through on job training, or through class room training. This is for purposes of orienting them on the various cultures of the organization, and how they can improve on their work

Pocahontas 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pocahontas 3 - Essay Example Another topic is selflessness and courage. Her encounter of saving Smith’s life was an act of love for humans despite one’s origin. In addition, trickery is portrayed in the sense that she was lured to board an English boat and later ended up as a slave so as to entice her father to cooperate with the new settlers. The central argument is how she promoted peace and mutual understanding between the Englishmen and the native Indians of Virginia. The movie is very engaging by the drama and humor it brings on board. Pocahontas is referred to as a princess, but in reality she was not entitled to inherit things a princess would inherit. The arguments are well supported by the language and actions in the documentary. The video has no bias at all and all crystal clear. I enjoyed watching the moving because it’s really engaging and the most interesting part is when Pocahontas fell in love with a person from another race, religion, custom and later decided to stay with the Brits rather than going back to her

Sullivan Ballous Letter to His Wife Before the Battle of Bull Run Essay Example for Free

Sullivan Ballous Letter to His Wife Before the Battle of Bull Run Essay Love of country is not unique to Americans, but in a democracy, sending citizens to war requires far more than a dictators fiat. In 1861, men on both sides of the conflict were willing to lay down their lives for what they believed to be right. Southerners fought for states rights and a society built upon human slavery, which many considered the natural order of the universe. When the war started, few volunteers in the northern army marched off to end slavery, but many were ready to fight and die to preserve the Union. One such soldier was Major Sullivan Ballou of the Second Regiment, Rhode Island Volunteers. Then thirty-two years old, Ballou had overcome his familys poverty to start a promising career as a lawyer. He and his wife Sarah wanted to build a better life for their two boys, Edgar and Willie. An ardent Republican and a devoted supporter of Abraham Lincoln, Ballou had volunteered in the spring of 1861, and on June 19 he and his men had left Providence for Washington, D.C. He wrote the following letter to his wife from a camp just outside the nations capital, and it is at once a passionate love letter as well as a profound meditation on the meaning of the Union. It caught national importance 129 years after he wrote it, when it was read on the widely watched television series, The Civil War, produced by Ken Burns. The beauty of the language as well as the passion of the sentiments touched the popular imagination, and brought home to Americans once again what defense of democracy entailed. Ballou wrote the letter July 14, while awaiting orders that would take him to Manassas, where he and twenty-seven of his men would die one week later at the Battle of Bull Run. LETTER TO HIS WIFE (1861) My very dear Sarah: The indications are very strong that we shall move in a few days perhaps tomorrow. Lest I should not be able to write you again, I feel impelled to write lines that may fall under your eye when I shall be no more. Our movement may be one of a few days duration and full of pleasure and it may be one of severe conflict and death to me. Not my will, but thine O God, be done. If it is necessary that I should fall on the battlefield for my country, I am ready. I have no misgivings about, or lack of confidence in, the cause in which I am engaged, and my courage does not halt or falter. I know how strongly American Civilization now leans upon the triumph of the Government, and how great a debt we owe to those who went before us through the blood and suffering of the Revolution. And I am willing perfectly willing to lay down all my joys in this life, to help maintain this Government, and to pay that debt. But, my dear wife, when I know that with my own joys I lay down nearly all of yours, and replace them in this life with cares and sorrows when, after having eaten for long years the bitter fruit of orphanage myself, I must offer it as their only sustenance to my dear little children is it weak or dishonorable, while the banner of my purpose floats calmly and proudly in the breeze, that my unbounded love for you, my darling wife and children, should struggle in fierce, though useless, contest with my love of country? I cannot describe to you my feelings on this calm summer night, when two thousand men are sleeping around me, many of them enjoying the last, perhaps, before that of death and I, suspicious that Death is creeping behind me with his fatal dart, am communing with God, my country, and thee. I have sought most closely and diligently, and often in my breast, for a wrong motive in thus hazarding the happiness of those I loved and I could not find one. A pure love of my country and of the principles I have often advocated before the people and the name of honor that I love more than I fear death have called upon me, and I have obeyed. Sarah, my love for you is deathless, it seems to bind me to you with mighty cables that nothing but Omnipotence could break; and yet my love of Country comes over me like a strong wind and bears me irresistibly on with all these chains to the battlefield. The memories of the blissful moments I have spent with you come creeping over me, and I feel most gratified to God and to you that I have enjoyed them so long. And hard it is for me to give them up and burn to ashes the hopes of future years, when God willing, we might still have lived and loved together, and seen our sons grow up to honorable manhood around us. I have, I know, but few and small claims upon Divine Providence, but something whispers to me perhaps it is the wafted prayer of my little Edgar that I shall return to my loved ones unharmed. If I do not, my dear Sarah, never forget how much I love you, and when my last breath escapes me on the battlefield, it will whisper your name. Forgive my many faults, and the many pains I have caused you. How thoughtless and foolish I have oftentimes been! How gladly would I wash out with my tears every little spot upon your happiness, and struggle with all the misfortune of this world, to shield you and my children from harm. But I cannot. I must watch you from the spirit land and hover near you, while you buffet the storms with your precious little freight, and wait with sad patience till we meet to part no more. But, O Sarah! If the dead can come back to this earth and flit unseen around those they loved, I shall always be near you; in the garish day and in the darkest night amidst your happiest scenes and gloomiest hours always, always; and if there be a soft breeze upon your cheek, it shall be my breath; or the cool air fans your throbbing temple, it shall be my spirit passing by. Sarah, do not mourn me dead; think I am gone and wait for thee, for we shall meet again. As for my little boys, they will grow as I have done, and never know a fathers love and care. Little Willie is too young to remember me long, and my blue-eyed Edgar will keep my frolics with him among the dimmest memories of his childhood. Sarah, I have unlimited confidence in your maternal care and your development of their characters. Tell my two mothers his and hers I call Gods blessing upon them. O Sarah, I wait for you there! Come to me, and lead thither my children.

Documents Reflect History :: History

Documents Reflect History Written documents reflect what has happened. Actions that may have happened in history, give historical documents a reason to be. Although actions may not have occurred to cause documents to be written, they may have been just to prevent them from happening. The Declaration of Independence clearly states that the American colonists felt that having a political break with Great Britain would be needed. This was stated because the American colonists were getting tired of the high taxes and having their government ruled by a king living across an ocean. The Constitution of the United States became a document because the people who formatted the Constitution wanted to make a government strong enough to secure the rights of citizens and fight back with the country against its enemies. They wanted this because they wanted to be able to stand up against anyone or anything that came against the government. One of the purposes for the Constitution being written was to make laws and establish courts that are fair. This purpose was stated because if courts are not fair and laws are not just, then it will be as if we were still under the tyrannical rule of the King of England. The Martin Luther King Jr. â€Å"I Have A Dream† speech is a historical document. This document is known to be a new phase of the civil rights movement beginning in 1960, initiated by a new generation of African Americans and extremely supported by young liberal Caucasians. Many events occurred to give reasoning for this document to be written. Segregation took place and Martin Luther King Jr. stood up for what he believed in. He stated that the African Americans were not free and were not treated equal, as they should be. He specifically states, â€Å"There will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights.† This document was written because Martin Luther King Jr. felt the same as many other African Americans, hoping that someday all the racism will vanish and the racist will realize that everyone should get a chance at being treated equally. Of Civil Government by John Locke (1932-1704) became a document stating that we, the people, should take only what we deserve and to not depend on someone else to help you get what you want. Also, we being equal means that we should not hart or harm another in their life, health, liberty, or possessions.

Economic Interdependence Essay

Between 1939 and 1945, World War II took the lives of over 60 million people worldwide, making it the deadliest military conflict in the history of mankind. These statistics are so staggering that if famine were hypothetically eradicated from the earth, war would stand as the largest executioner of mankind. With that in mind, it would be safe to assume that today’s global leaders are in no way in favor of engaging in an armed conflict with another nation. Sadly, this is not necessarily the case we see in reality; wars are still being fought to attain fundamental components such as territory or political freedom. There are, however, theoretical aspects in today’s globalized society that allows political leaders to prevent military disputes from occurring in the first place. The question then becomes: is it possible to prevent or diminish war onset between dyads and if so, how? It is important to ask this question mainly because war is still very much a relevant aspect in our current international system. From the Gulf War to the War on Terror in the Middle East, military conflict seems to be the go-to option for a country seeking to achieve their goal when no other choice seems viable. In essence, war still occurs even in the relatively evolved society we currently inhabit because it has historically proved that brute force is at times the only practical option. The American Revolutionary War, for example, demonstrated that the colonies did not have the luxury of simply claiming their independence from Britain. The colonists had no choice but to fight for their freedom in order to become independent. Such historical instances demonstrate what war can accomplish, thus justifying why countries save war as a last resort. The majority of the time, however, military disputes are not the best course of action to undergo so finding a way to prevent war is a nation’s best alternative. By no means does this question have a definitive answer since war is a highly perplex, multi-faceted phenomenon but I will attempt to propose the best strategy leaders can take to reduce the possibility of war. In this paper I will call attention to several theoretical answers to the research question above, each with their own advantages and faults. The possible solutions to decrease military conflicts between dyads are based upon the governmental aspects of each country – such as regime type or levels of trade – and their influence on the relationship with another nation. The most recognized theories that could reduce the likelihood of war are the Democratic peace theory, balance of power theory and the commercial peace theory. The validity of each of these theories will be outlined to highlight their potential to help dyads avoid armed conflict. However, the latter theory will be the focus of this paper as my hypothesis stems from the belief that an increase in economic interdependence within a dyad leads to an overall decrease in militarized interstate disputes (MIDs) between that dyad. In order to validate my argument, I will first make an argument for each theory and then continue by creating a case that trade truly diminishes war. First, the Democratic peace theory is defined as a theory in political science and philosophy which holds that democracies—specifically, liberal democracies—almost never go to war with one another (Gartzke 2000). The idea behind ‘democracies do not fight one another’ is sustained by the fact that when two democracies confront one another in conflicts of interest, they are able to effectively employ democratic bargaining in their interaction, which then prevents most disagreements from escalating to a military conflict. In a struggle between democracies, by the time the two states are militarily ready for war, diplomats have had the opportunity to find a nonviolent solution to the dispute (Gartzke 2000). The concept behind democratic peace bears a close resemblance to a ‘them vs. us’ mentality. Countries take more into account what other likeminded states think of them over the ones with a completely different structure and ideals; it is easier to rally with people of the same beliefs. Nations that share democratic principles will be more concerned with pushing that same mindset and threatened by opposing regimes extending their reach, thus leading democracies to rely on each other. It is more beneficial being on the same side, than it is against one another. Unfortunately, the Democratic peace theory begins to start falling apart at the seams once you take into consideration the foundation that defines democratic peace. The first problems stems from the inaccurate definition of democracy, which calls into question the alleged evidence in support of the theory. Methodology used in collecting data to test whether or not a country is democratic is unscientific and democracies have been involved in conflict with each other at a much higher rate than what the proponents have determined. Even if the definition of democracies were accurately outlined, the current data would still be insufficient to establish a causal link between the democratic political institutions of a state and the frequency with which that state will engage in conflicts with other democracies (Layne 1994). The relative peace between democracies may just as well be the consequence of the international power structure of recent decades. If such is true, the very foundation of the democratic peace theory collapses. Next, the balance of power theory centers on the idea that when one nation or coalition increases its power or employ it more assertively, threatened states will respond by increasing their own power, usually by creating a counter-balancing alliance. Since the rise of major players in the international system, e. g. he United States, the balance of power among the most powerful states has been a delicate aspect that can potentially create complications or prevent them altogether. For example, if China were to somehow generate enough momentum and overthrow the United States in terms of global power, the US would most likely become agitated and retaliate with armed force. Alternatively, it can also act as a component for peace; a defeated nation can receive leniency from the major power and allow them to reestablish themselves prior to their conflict. The most important factor affecting the relation between the distribution of power and the likelihood of war is whether the terms of a compromise agreement that might be accepted in lieu of war affect the relative power of the antagonists and therefore the probability that the agreement will be enforced (Wagner 1994). Thus the relationship one can expect between the distribution of power and the likelihood of war depends on the specific instances that a dyad is faced with. The problem with the balance of power theory is that it is prone to security dilemmas, a concept that is generally integrated within the balance of power. With security dilemmas, none can feel at ease because both sides of a dyad want to match their power to the other, creating a never-ending quest for power. A nation’s possession of power – no matter how much the state tries to guarantee others that it is for defensive purposes only – will likely result in fear and/or suspicion from the opposing side. Thus, military disputes are expected to occur even when political â€Å"motives† for war – like territorial disputes, revenge, etc. – are absent. Nineteenth century Europe fosters many examples of how security dilemmas and balance of power created tension between states. The lack of overall authority in Europe meant that a self-help system of alliance and military force dominated the region (Wagner 1994). The justification touted by states to acquire military force was constantly outfitted as a solution of a threat to the equilibrium of the international system, which in turn validates the idea that balance of power theory acted as a cause of war in the nineteenth century. While democratic peace and balance of power theories offer intriguing premises to prevent war, they fall short in the end. Although there are several potential answers to the research question, I believe the truest method of inhibiting military disputes between two nations lies within the dyad’s economic interdependency. When it comes to the effect of economic interdependency among states, political experts are torn between two explanations. More specifically, states that are interdependent are either believed to be less likely to initiate militarized conflict – the liberal approach – or follow the realist view where bilateral trade doesn’t necessarily lead to conflict mitigation. There is compelling data on both sides of this argument but extensive research has led me to believe that the liberal perspective of trade follows this relationship more closely. The economic relationship that states share is imperative in determining whether or not they will uphold peace in order to facilitate greater benefits in the future. Economic interdependence, as explained by Gartzke, has multiple facets that embody this relationship between a dyad such as trade share, trade dependence and trade openness. Gartzke finds that these variables each have their distinct relationship with dyadic conflict, demonstrating that trade dependence and openness both decrease the probability of MID onset (2003). He notes that trade share, however, coincides with Barbieri’s findings, which indicates an increased probability for MID onset. Barbieri supports the conservative approach and states â€Å"although war sometimes leads to a temporary decline in the level of dyadic trade, in most instances war has no permanent long-term effect on trading relationships and, in fact, trade often increases in the postwar period† (Barbieri 1999). Even though Barbieri’s study makes a compelling argument, there is more evidence to support the claim that bilateral trading diminishes the chance of militarized disputes since trade mediates any tension that exists and reinforces their relationship at the international level. Nations, as rational actors in the diplomatic system, will consider trade agreements accordingly with other nations in order to gain goods and services to increase the well being of their state. This relationship between states is an important factor that will determine their rate of trade and whether or not they go to war with one another. Rational choice says that if the state is indeed rational, then their preferences are stable and transitive so they will always prefer to diminish any chance of war while at the same time benefiting from dyadic trade. Trade acts as a stabilizing force between the dyad and will prefer positive reinforcement (i. e. trade) versus negative reinforcement (i. e. war), hence transitivity. Rational choice therefore leads to the utility maximizing concept where states weigh the pros and cons of waging war on a state where mutual trade agreements take place. States will consider the most beneficial trades to maximize their gain but will also contemplate even the most miniscule trades in order to accelerate the possibility of greater trade in the future. The expectations of future trade impact the expected value of the trading option if a state decides to forgo war (Copeland 1996). In other words, although economic exchange may not offer immediate substantial gains, prospective trade opportunities prevent states from initiating conflict. Trade allows states to mutually benefit from one another while states that don’t trade gain nothing. Reed argues, â€Å"trading states can expect to gain less from a militarized clash than would nontrading states and, as a result, are more likely to accept a bargained outcome short of militarized conflict† (2003). If that benefit were no longer being exchanged, i. e. , trade, then the trading states would rather resolve their issue through negotiations rather than militarized conflict to continue receiving the benefit. In other words, the aforementioned relationship between trading and interstate conflict describes my causal process where an increase in bilateral trade leads to a decrease in MIDs. By choosing to exchange goods and/or services with states regardless of their contribution size, they are directly diminishing the probability of going to war with the opposing state. Alternatively, the relationship is reversed when trade is absent between a dyad since there is nothing to inhibit one another from attacking. Another benefit that comes from high levels of commercial exchange is described as the ‘information-maximizing’ theory: a belief that bilateral trade not only produces benefits from tangible goods but also intangible benefits such as increased information, which reduces the likelihood of hostility between the dyad (Reed 2003). Economic interdependence mitigates the effect of uncertainty through transparency and full disclosure agreements that lead to an enhanced probability of settlement short of militarized conflict. Interdependent states prefer the benefits gained from trade – tangible or intangible – because it allows the states to become more informed on their opponents’ costs of war than would nontrading states. Even when existing commercial exchange is low or non-existent, positive expectations for future trade will produce a positive expected value for trade, and therefore an incentive for continued peace. From 1971 to 1973 and in the late 1980s – the two main periods of cooperation between the Cold War superpowers – positive signs from U.  S. leaders led to trade being significantly increased, which coaxed the Soviets into a more cooperative relationship, reducing the probability of war (Copeland 1996). The Cold War exemplifies the idea that trade can act as a mediator, even among opposing superpowers. Trade agreements are effective means to ensure peaceful relationships among other states. Economic interdependency creates the ability to build beneficial trade arrangements, increasing state resources and improving the dyad’s collective relationship. The correlation between interdependence and MID onset is important not only for dyads that trade at higher levels but also for those with minimal trade amounts. Furthermore, the magnitude of trade does not play an influential role in determining the importance of the trade agreement since prospective gains always outweigh a militarized strike. If we ask ourselves again if it is possible to prevent or diminish war onset between dyads, it becomes clear that preventing military disputes stems from having a well established trade arrangement. It is irrelevant if the countries are both democracies or if they are similarly matched in military power – the only thing that really matters is whether a dyad exchanges goods and/or services. Consider the United States and China today; one is a democratic, military superpower while the other is a socialist state with no exceptional global power. Yet they share a relatively prosperous, mutually beneficial commercial relationship. No matter which way you view it, trade acts as the greatest approach for peace.

Distillation Experiment

SUMMARY The aim is to observe distillation process of ethanol-water solution and to measure the alcohol content after process in this experiment. 500 ml of solution with an alcohol content of 32% (v/v) is used for this experiment. Temperature values are recorded for every 10 ml alcohol obtained in the flask. The process is repeated in our experiment and for the first process, the data collection process continues until the distillate reaches to 200 ml. The concentration of alcohol is measured for first process by hydrometer.For the second process, approximately 200 ml of distillate containing 70% alcohol is used and data collection continues until the distillate reaches 150 ml. Finally, the concentration of alcohol is also measured after 2nd process as 82%. INTRODUCTION The objective of this experiment is to distillate the alcohol-water solution into ethanol and water. Distillation is a process of separating mixtures based on differences in volatilities of components in a boiling liq uid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction.The basic requirement of distillation is that the components of the liquid solution must have different boiling points. There are some types of distillation methods which are flash distillation, simple batch distillation, simple steam distillation, continuous distillation, vacuum distillation, etc. : Flash distillation It is a single stage process which liquid mixture is vaporized. The vapor and the liquid are come to equilibrium, and these phases are separated. Simple steam distillation This is a separation process at lower temperatures.This process is often used to separate a high boiling component from small amounts of nonvolatile impurities. Continuous distillation This is a process in which a liquid mixture is continuously fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously. Vacuum distillation It is used for some compounds having very high boiling poin ts. Instead of the increasing the temperature too much, lowering the pressure is preferred in this distillation type. In this experiment we used simple batch distillation in order to distillate alcohol-water mixture.Simple batch distillation This is a separation process which the liquid charge is boiled slowly and the vapors are withdrawn as quickly as vapors form to condenser, where the distillate, condensed vapor, is collected. The first portion of vapor condensed will be the richest in the more volatile component. Vapor-liquid equilibria take an important role in distillation process. Vapor-Liquid-Equilibria (VLE) Constant pressure VLE data is obtained from boiling point diagrams. VLE data of binary mixtures is often presented as a plot, as shown in the figure below.The curved line is called the equilibrium line and describes the compositions of the liquid and vapour in equilibrium at some fixed pressure. Distillation experiment is applied to two miscible liquids which are ethano l-water, soluble in each other in all ratios. Mixtures of ethanol and water form an azeotrope. Azeotropic mixture: Azeotropic mixture is a solution that forms a vapor with the same concentration as the solution, distilling without a change in concentration. The composition of the liquid phase at the boiling point is identical to hat of the vapor in equilibrium with it, and azeotropes form constant-boiling solutions. The exact composition of the azeotrope changes if the boiling point is altered by a change in the external pressure. Ethyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope of 95. 6% at 78. 1 Â °C. Azeotropic systems give rise to VLE plots where the equilibrium curves crosses the diagonals. METHODS AND MATERIALS -Distillation apparatus -Alcoholmeter -Graduated cylinder -500 ml of 30% (v/v) water-ethanol mixture Source: Retrieved from http://www. baruch. cuny. edu/wsas/academics/natural_science/chm_1000/6_wine. df The distillation apparatus is for the separation of two miscible liquid s by taking advantage of their boiling point differences. The mixture is put in the distillation flask, and a thermometer is located in there. The heater has a knob that is used to adjust the heating. Cold tap water is circulated in the condenser to condense the vapor. First, the ethanol – water mixture was poured into the distillation flask, and boiling chips were used to prevent over bubbling. Then the heater was turned on at a moderate level to prevent fast heating and better separation of the liquids.After the first drop of the distillate was obtained, the temperature was recorded. Every 10 milliliters, the temperature in the flask was recorded. At the end of the distillation, an alcoholmeter was used to measure the alcohol content of the distillate. 200 milliliters of distillate was distillated again in the same manner to obtain a higher alcohol percentage in the final product. DATA & CALCULATION Notations used: A: Ethanol B: Water XA ? Mole fraction of ethanol in liquid YA ? Mole fraction of ethanol in vapor XB? Mole fraction of water in liquid YB ?Mole fraction of water in vapor Assumptions: – Pressure is 101,32kPa – Constant physical properties – Condensed fluid drops on the wall of still are neglected Initial data: – 500 mL of ethanol-water mixture is used for the first distillation. – 200 mL of ethanol-water mixture is used for the second distillation. Calculation: XA & YA values can be calculated from the Raoult’s law equation; ? A + ? B = P PA* XA + PB* XB = P ? Since XA + XB = 1 PA* XA + PB* (1- XA)= P XA = (P – PB)/( PA – PB) The PA & PB values were obtained according to the temperature data. (Acland,T. 2011) 1st DISTILLATION: T(? C)PBPAXAYAXBYB 7843,5100,11,0015551,0032540,000,00 78,544,4102,10,9864820,9940760,0135180,005924 7945,3104,10,9527210,9788620,0472790,021138 79,245,7104,90,9395270,9727240,0604730,027276 79,345,9105,30,9329970,9696460,0670030,030354 79,546,3106,20,9185310,96 27710,0814690,037229 8047,2108,30,8857610,9467820,1142390,053218 80,548,2110,40,8540190,9305540,1459810,069446 8149,2112,60,8220820,9136050,1779180,086395 81,550,2114,80,7913310,8966130,2086690,103387 8251,21170,7617020,8795810,2382980,120419 82,552,2119,30,7320420,8619480,2679580,138052 353,3121,60,7030750,8438010,2969250,156199 8455,4126,30,6476730,8073540,3523270,192646 8557,7131,20,5934690,7684880,4065310,231512 85,558,8133,70,567690,7491140,432310,250886 8762,4141,50,4920350,687160,5079650,31284 8864,8146,90,4448230,6449320,5551770,355068 88,566,1149,60,4217960,6227870,5782040,377213 9070158,10,3555050,5547310,6444950,445269 The average composition of total material distilled, Yav was measured by using hydrometer as 70%. So the final composition of remaining liquid,X2, can be obtained by material balance using Rayleigh equation: L1X1 = L2X2+ (L1 – L2)Yav 00(0,32) = 300 X2 + 200(0,7) ? X2 = 0,067 That means, 6,7 % of ethanol remained in the distillation still. 2nd DISTILL ATION: T(? C)PBPAXAYAXBYB 78,544,4102,10,9864820,9940760,0135180,005924 79,546,3106,20,9185310,9627710,0814690,037229 8047,2108,30,8857610,9467820,1142390,053218 8149,2112,60,8220820,9136050,1779180,086395 8251,21170,7617020,8795810,2382980,120419 8455,4126,30,6476730,8073540,3523270,192646 8864,8146,90,4448230,6449320,5551770,355068 9070158,10,3555050,5547310,6444950,445269 The average composition of total material distilled, Yav was measured by using hydrometer as 82%.So the final composition of remaining liquid,X2, can be obtained by material balance using Rayleigh equation: L1X1 = L2X2+ (L1 – L2)Yav 200(0,7) = 50 X2 + 150(0,82) ? X2 = 0,34 That means, 34 % of ethanol remained in the distillation still. DISCUSSION In first distillation, according to data obtained boiling point diagram is drawn. This graph can be seen as incomplete because some data is missing in order to complete graph since high temperature is not reached. Moreover, azeotropic point cannot be seen because we are not able to change pressure, so we cannot see that point and forward.In boiling point diagram graph for second distillation, we omit some of data because fraction is found negative, which is not possible. There may be error due to experimental condition or reflux. CONCLUSION In this experiment, our aim is to learn basic distillation concept and how to take and evaluate our data. We also learnt how to put data into boiling point diagram. In first distillation it is obtained 70% alcohol water solution and in the second distillation it is obtained 78% alcohol water solution.However, because of negative fraction values, we are not able to put all the data into boiling point diagram. REFERENCES Ackland, T. (2011). Home distillation of alcohol. Retrieved from http://homedistiller. org/ Geankoplis, C. J. (2003). Transport processes and separation process principles. Prentice Hall. Seperation Process. Distillation. Retrieved from http://www. separationprocesses. com/ Distillation/DT _Chp05. htm Wikipedia. Distillation. Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Distillation Wikipedia. Azeotropic Distillation. Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

Nobelium Facts - No Element

Nobelium Facts - No Element NobeliumBasic Facts Atomic Number: 102 Symbol: No Atomic Weight: 259.1009 Discovery: 1957 (Sweden) by the Nobel Institute for Physics; April 1958 at Berkeley by A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland, J.R. Walton, and G.T. Seaborg Electron Configuration: [Rn] 7s2 5f14 Word Origin: Named for Alfred Nobel, discoverer of dynamite and founder of the Nobel Prize. Isotopes: Ten isotopes of nobelium are recognized. Nobelium-255 has a half-life of 3 minutes. Nobelium-254 has a half-life of 55-s, Nobelium-252 has a half-life of 2.3-s, and Nobelium-257 has a half-life of 23-s. Sources: Ghiorso and his colleagues used a double-recoil technique. A heavy-ion linear accelerator was used to bombard a thin target of curium (95% Cm-244 and 4.5% Cm-246) with C-12 ions to produce No-102. The reaction proceeded according to the 246Cm(12C, 4n) reaction. Element Classification: Radioactive Rare Earth Element (Actinide Series) Nobelium Physical Data Melting Point (K): 1100 Appearance: Radioactive, synthetic metal. Atomic Radius (pm): 285 Pauling Negativity Number: 1.3 First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol): (640) Oxidation States: 3, 2 References: Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001), Crescent Chemical Company (2001), Langes Handbook of Chemistry (1952), CRC Handbook of Chemistry Physics (18th Ed.) Return to the Periodic Table

Differential Reproductive Success in the Science of Evolution

Differential Reproductive Success in the Science of Evolution The term differential reproductive success sounds complicated, but it refers to a rather simple idea common in the study of evolution. The term is used when comparing the successful reproduction rates of two groups of individuals in the same generation of a species population, each exhibiting a different genetically determined characteristic or genotype. It is a term that is central to any discussion of natural selection- the cornerstone principle of evolution. Evolutionary scientists might, for example, want to study whether short height or tall height is more conducive to a species continued survival. By documenting how many individuals of each group produces offspring and in what numbers, scientists arrive at a differential reproductive success rate.   Natural Selection From an  evolutionary perspective, the overall goal of any species is to continue to the next generation. The mechanism is ordinarily rather simple:  produce as many offspring as possible to ensure that at least some of them survive to  reproduce and create the next generation. Individuals within the population of a species often compete for food, shelter, and mating partners to make sure that it is their DNA and their traits that are the ones passed down to the next generation to carry on the species. A cornerstone of the theory of evolution is this principle of natural selection. Sometimes called survival  of the fittest, natural selection is the process by which  those individuals with genetic traits better suited to their environments live long enough to reproduce many offspring, thereby passing the genes for those favorable adaptations to the next generation. Those individuals lacking the favorable traits, or possessing unfavorable traits, are likely to die off before they can reproduce, removing their genetic material from the ongoing  gene pool. Comparing Reproductive Success Rates The term differential reproductive success refers to a statistical analysis comparing successful reproduction rates between groups in a given generation of a species- in other words, how many offspring each group of individuals is able to leave behind. The analysis is used to compare two groups holding different variations of the same trait, and it provides evidence of which group is the fittest. If individuals exhibiting variation A of a trait are demonstrated to reach reproductive age more often and produce more offspring than individuals with variation B of the same trait, the differential reproductive success rate allows you to infer that natural selection is at work and that variation A is advantageous- at least for conditions at the time. Those individuals with variation A will deliver more genetic material for that trait to the next generation, making it more likely to persist and carry on to future generations. Variation B, meanwhile, is likely to gradually vanish.   Differential reproductive success can manifest in a number of ways. In some instances, a trait variation might cause individuals to live longer, thereby having more birth events that deliver more offspring to the next generation. Or, it may cause more offspring to be produced with each birth, even though lifespan remains unchanged. Differential reproductive success can be used to study natural selection in any population of any living species, from the largest mammals to the smallest microorganisms. The evolution of certain antibiotic-resistance bacteria is a classic example of natural selection, in which bacteria with a gene mutation making them resistant to drugs gradually replaced bacteria that had no such resistance. For medical scientists, identifying these strains of drug-resistant bacteria (the fittest) involved documenting the differential reproductive success rates between different strains of the bacteria.

Thank you for smoking Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Thank you for smoking - Movie Review Example This depicts a frame of Nick’s character and probably explains the reason as to why he does not lose arguments. This is because he reframes the argument till he wins. Also the film highlights a major critique posed by the society. These are the powers which run the government and the industry and are engrossed in playing games rather than bothering about the stakes. In the talk show, Nick wins the argument by announcing the launch of a $50 million campaign to dissuade teenagers from smoking. However, the Captain when hearing about this campaign remarks ‘I hope the campaign is not too effective!’The Captain just hopes that the campaign does not effectively stop teenagers from being aware of cigarettes and not even start smoking. The satirical comedy shows the American Government also trying to win its own argument with the senator; Sen Ortolan Finistirre is the crusader against smoking. The senator further laments after Nick is kidnapped and then laments because â €˜he survived the attack’. Fallacies used by Nick Another conversation between a father and a son in California, where Nick coaches Joey the manner in which one has to win an argument. The setting is for a basic argument as to whether chocolate is good or vanilla. When Joey supports chocolate by remarking that chocolate is what he needs, Nick reframes the argument by retorting ‘well I need more than chocolate, and for that matter I need more than vanilla. I believe that we need freedom’. This displays the fallacy of red herring. In this kind of rhetorical strategy, the emphasis is shifted from the core issue to an unrelated or tangential issue to win an argument. In yet another argument Naylor uses the red herring fallacy. This is explicated when he is asked to testify in front of the senatorial committee. He says ‘Gentlemen, it’s called education ... It is the job of every parent to warn their children of all the dangers in the world, including c igarettes, so that one day when they get older they can choose for themselves.’ Here again, Nick waves from the central topic of cigarettes to that of parental responsibility, education and freedom. He is well aware that Americans love their freedom and thereby plays with these words to control their emotion. Naylor also uses the faulty analogy fallacy in the senatorial committee meeting. He compares the Conglomerated Tobacco’s cigarette funding with the funding for the senate’s campaign contributions. The ad hominem fallacy is used by Naylor when he suggests putting warning signs on certain products like Vermont cheddar cheese, cars and aeroplanes. The red herring fallacy is again used when Naylor points out the negative effects of Vermont cheddar cheese on raising cholesterol levels. In fact, Senator Lothridge has to interrupt to bring back Naylor and Senator Finisterre back on the core topic of whether to put warning labels on cigarette packets. The main prot agonist extensively uses logos to present his arguments in front of the senatorial committee. He logically concludes that if cigarette packets needed to display warning signs like ‘skulls and crossbones’ then other products like cars, airplanes and Vermont cheddar cheese should also have warning signs. He knowingly dissuades from the core topic by quoting ‘Well, the real demonstrated number one killer in America is cholesterol, and here comes Senator Finisterre, whose fine state is, I